Host-parasite translocation: A potential source of zoonoses emergence in Nigeria

Resumo

Zoonoses are infectious diseases that are spread between animals and people. These diseases are transmitted to humans in many ways, such as direct contacts, indirect contacts, vector-borne, foodborne, and inhalation. Translocation and introduction of animals to new geographic regions correspond to increased human global travel and commerce as underlying factors for infectious disease emergence. In this review, we examined some potential notable driving mechanism of zoonosis in Nigeria. The population explodes, and demand for animal products has resulted in the expansion of animal trade, both local and international, animal and human movements, and intensification of livestock production systems. The above mentioned have an indirect role in zoonotic disease distribution. Animal husbandry, wildlife hunting, and hunting with dogs are potential routes of parasite translocation, most notably when infected animals are killed. Zoonotic diseases cause severe economic loss in the pathogenic spoilage of milk, contaminated animal products, carcass quality, weight loss, infertility, and loss of animal population. The cost of disease control decreases in household income due to a reduction in livestock/product sales. Also, consumption impacts due to reduced food availability, increased household vulnerability where livestock is used as a risk-coping mechanism, and effects on household finance, which influences household savings. Our suggestions for future effective zoonoses control include, an improved surveillance system, well-structured quarantine services, institutionalized one health approach, public enlightenment, interdisciplinary research, and ultimately a strict conservation rules and regulation may be turned into law to avoid transmission of Zoonosis through the consumption of wild animal which is most reservoir of causative pathogen.

Referências

1. Abdullahi, U. S.; Daneyel, H. N.; Aliyara, Y. H. Grazing reserves and pastoralism in Nigeria: A
2. review. Vom Journal of Veterinary Science, v. 10, p. 137-142, 2015.
3. Adedipe, O. D.; Uwalaka, E. C.; Akinseye, V. O.; Adediran, O. A.; Cadmus, S. I. B.
4. Gastrointestinal helminths in slaughtered cattle in Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria. Journal
5. of Veterinary Medicine, v. 2014, Article ID 923561, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/
6. /923561
7. Ajayi, S. S. The utilization of tropical forest wildlife: State of knowledge and research
8. priorities. Proceedings of the 8th World Forestry Congress, Dakarta, Indonesia, 1979.
9. Ameni, G.; Tadesse, K.; Hailu, E.; Deresse, Y.; Medhin, G.; Aseffa, A.; et al. Transmission of
10. Mycobacterium tuberculosis between farmers and cattle in Central Ethiopia. PLoS One, v. 8,
11. no. 10, p. 1-10, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.05.005
12. Aregheore E. M. Country pasture/forage resource profiles. Rome: FAO, 2009. Available
13. from: <http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Counprof/PDF files/Nigeria.pdf>.
14. Accessed on: May 19, 2019.
15. BBC. Nigeria ‘on red alert’ over Ebola death in Lagos. BBC, 2014. Available from:
16. <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28498665>. Accessed on: May 19, 2019.
17. Belay, E. D.; Maddox, R. A.; Williams, E. S.; Miller, M. W.; Gambetti, P.; Schonberger, L. B.
18. Chronic wasting disease and potential transmission to humans. Emerging Infectious
19. Diseases, v. 10, no. 6, p. 977-984, 2004. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1006.031082
20. Bengis, R. G.; Kock, R. A.; Fischer, J. Infectious animal diseases: The wildlife/livestock
21. interface. Revue Scientifique et Technique, v. 21, no. 1, p. 53-65, 2002.
22. Birol, E.; Asare-Marfo, D.; Ayele, G.; Mensah-Bonsu, A.; Ndirangu, L.; Okpukpara, B.; Roy, D.;
23. Yakhshilikov, Y. Investigating the role of poultry in livelihoods and the impact of HPAI on
24. livelihoods outcomes in Africa: Evidence from Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria.
25. Proceedings of the Third Conference/AEASA 48th Conference, Cape Town, South Africa,
26. Cadmus, S. I. B. Bovine tuberculosis in Nigeria: Historical perspective, burden, risk factors,
27. and challenges for its diagnosis and control. In: Dibaba, A. B.; Kriek, N. P. J.; Thoen, C. O.
28. Tuberculosis in animals: An African perspective. Cham: Springer. 363-378, 2019.
29. p. 363-378.
30. Chen, W.-J.; Lai, S.-J.; Yang, Y.; Liu, K.; Li, X.-L.; Yao, H.-W.; Li, Y.; Zhou, H.; Wang, L.-P.; Mu, D.;
31. Yin, W.-W.; Fang, L.-Q.; Yu, H.-J.; Cao, W.-C. Mapping the distribution of anthrax in Mainland
32. China, 2005-2013. PLoS Neglected Tropical Disease, v. 10, no. 4, e0004637, 2016.
33. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004637
34. Chomel, B. B.; Belotto, A.; Meslin, F.-X. Wildlife, exotic pets, and emerging zoonoses.
35. Emerging Infectous Disease, v. 13, no. 1, p. 6-11, 2007. https://doi.org/10.3201/
36. eid1301.060480
37. Dahal, R. Zoonotic diseases and one health approach. Epidemiology: Open Access, v. 4,
38. e115, 2014. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-1165.1000e115
39. Dan-Nwafor, C. C.; Furuse, Y.; Ilori, E. A.; Ipadeola, O.; Akabike, K. O.; Ahumibe, A.; Ukponu,
40. W.; Bakare, L.; Okwor, T. J.; Joseph, G.; Mba, N. G.; Akano, A.; Olayinka, A. T.; Okoli, I.; Okea,
41. R. A.; Makava, F.; Ugbogulu, N.; Oladele, S.; Namara, G.; Muwanguzi, E. N.; Naidoo, D.;
42. Mutbam, S. K.; Okudo, I.; Woldetsadik, S. F.; Lasuba, C. L. P.; Ihekweazu, C. Measures to
43. control protracted large Lassa fever outbreak in Nigeria. European Communicable
44. Disease Bulletin, v. 24, no. 20, 1900272, 2019. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-
45. ES.2019.24.20.1900272
46. Daszak, P.; Cunningham, A. A.; Hyatt, A. D. Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife: Threats
47. to biodiversity and human health. Science, v. 287, no. 5452, p. 443-449, 2000.
48. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5452.443
49. Davies, T. J.; Pedersen, A. B. Phylogeny and geography predict pathogen community
50. similarity in wild primates and humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological
51. Sciences, v. 275, p. 1695-1701, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.0284
52. Esuruoso, G. O. Current status of brucellosis in Nigeria and a preliminary evaluation of the
53. probable cost and benefit of a proposed brucellosis control programme for the country.
54. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Veterinary Epidemiology and
55. Economics. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, p. 644-649, 1979.
56. Available from: <http://www.sciquest.org.nz/node/61028>. Accessed in: Oct. 28, 2019.
57. Ezeibe, A. B. C. Profitability analysis of pig production under intensive management
58. system in Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu State, Nigeria. International Journal
59. of Economic Development Research and Investment, v. 1, p. 48-54, 2010.
60. FAO - Food and Agricultural Organization. Country brief: Nigeria. Africa Sustainable
61. Livestock 2050. Abuja, Nigeria: FAO, 2018. Available from: <http://www.fao.org/
62. /CA2146EN/ca2146en.pdf>. Accessed on: Oct. 28, 2019.
63. FAO - Food and Agricultural Organization. 2010. Available from: <http://www.fao.org/
64. livestock-systems/global-distributions/en/>. Accessed on: Oct. 28, 2019.
65. Friant, S.; Paige, S. B.; Goldberg, T. L. Drivers of bushmeat hunting and perceptions of
66. zoonoses in Nigerian hunting communities. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, v. 9, no. 5,
67. e0003792, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003792
68. Grace, D.; Mutua, F.; Ochungo, P.; Kruska, R.; Jones, K.; Brierley. L.; Lapar, L.; Said, M.;
69. Herrero, M.; Phuc, P. M.; Thao, N. B.; Akuku, I.; Ogutu, F. Mapping of poverty and likely
70. zoonoses hotspots. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI, 2012. (Zoonoses Project 4; Report to the UK
71. Department for International Development). Available from: <https://cgspace.cgiar.org/
72. handle/10568/21161>. Accessed on: May 19, 2019.
73. Greger, M. The human/animal interface: Emergence and resurgence of zoonotic infectious
74. diseases. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, v. 33, no. 4, 243-299, 2007. https://doi.org/
75. 1080/10408410701647594
76. Hambolu, S.; Dzikwi A.; Kwaga P.; Kazeem H.; Umoh J.; Hambolu D. Rabies and dog bites
77. cases in Lagos State Nigeria: A prevalence and retrospective studies (2006-2011). Global
78. Journal of Health Science, v. 6, no. 1, p. 107-114, 2013. https://doi.org/10.5539/
79. gjhs.v6n1p107
80. Herrero, M.; Thornton, P. K. Livestock and global change: Emerging issues for sustainable
81. food systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, v. 110, p. 20878-
82. , 2014. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas,1321844111
83. Hughes, J. M.; La Montagne J. R. Emerging infectious diseases. Journal of Infectious
84. Diseases, v. 170, p. 263-263, 1994. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/170.2.263
85. Ijeomah, H. M.; Augustine, U. O.; Damilola, O. Analysis of poaching activities in Kainji Lake
86. National Park of Nigeria. Environment and Natural Resources Research, v. 3, no. 1,
87. https://doi.org/10.5539/enrr.v3n1p51
88. Kambarage, D. M.; Karimuribo, E. D.; Kusiluka, L. J. M.; Mdegela, R. H.; Kazwala, R. R.
89. Community public health education in Tanzania: Challenges, opportunities and the way
90. forward. In: FAO - Food and Agricultural Organization. Expert consultation on
91. community based Veterinary Public Health (VPH) Systems. Rome, FAO, 2003. v. 9.
92. Karesh, W. B.; Cook, R. A.; Bennett, E. L.; Newcomb, J. Wildlife trade and global disease
93. emergence. Emerging Infectious Diseases, v. 11, p. 1000-1002, 2005. https://doi.org/
94. 3201/eid1107.050194
95. Karshima, S. N.; Maikai, B.-V.; Kwaga, J. K. P. Helminths of veterinary and zoonotic
96. importance in Nigerian ruminants: A 46-year meta-analysis (1970-2016) of their
97. prevalence and distribution. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, v. 7, Article number 52,
98. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-018-0438-z
99. Kock R. A. What is this infamous “wildlife/livestock disease interface”? A review of current
100. knowledge for the African Continent. In: Osofsky, S. A.; Cleaveland, S.; Karesh, W. B.; Kock,
101. M. D.; Nyhus, P. J.; Starr, L.; Yang, A. Conservation and development interventions at
102. the wildlife/livestock interface: Implications for wildlife, livestock and human health.
103. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 2005. p. 1-13. Available from: <http://www.fao.org/3/ax6198e.html>. Accessed on: May 19, 2019.
104. Kruse, H.; Kirkemo, A. M; Handeland, K. Wildlife as source of zoonotic infections.
105. Emerging Infectious Diseases, v. 10, no. 12, p. 2067-2072, 2004. https://doi.org/
106. 3201/eid1012.040707
107. Luis, A. D.; Hayman, D. T. S.; O’Shea, T. J.; Cryan, P. M.; Gilbert, A. T.; Pulliam, J. R. C.; Mills, J.
108. N.; Timonin, M. E.; Willis, C. K. R.; Cunningham, A. A.; Fooks, A. R.; Rupprecht, C. E.; Wood, J.
109. L. N.; Webb, C. T. A comparison of bats and rodents as reservoirs of zoonotic viruses: Are
110. bats special? Proceedings of the Royal Society London B Biological Sciences, v. 280,
111. , 2013. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.2753
112. Magaji, M. Economic impact of bovine brucellosis in Nigeria. Edinburgh: University of
113. Edinburgh, 1984. (M. Sc. Dissertation).
114. Mark, R.; Buller, L. Poxviruses. In: Cohen, J.; Opal, S. M.; Powderly, W. G. (Eds.). Infectious
115. diseases. 3. ed. London: Content Repository Only, 2010. p. 1577-1582.
116. Martin, G. H. G. Bushmeat in Nigeria as a natural resource with environmental implications.
117. Environmental Conservation, v. 10, p. 125-132, 1983. http://doi.org/10.1017/
118. S0376892900012212
119. Matiuti, M.; Bogdan, A. T.; Crainiceanu, E.; Matiuti, C. Research regarding the hybrids
120. resulted from the domestic pig and the wild boar. Scientific Papers: Animal Science and
121. Biotechnologies, v. 43, n. 1, p. 188-191, 2010.
122. Mazet, J. A. K.; Clifford, D. L.; Coppolillo, P. B.; Deolalikar, A. B.; Erickson, J. D.; Kazwala, R. R.
123. A “one health” approach to address emerging zoonoses: The HALI Project in Tanzania.
124. PLoS Medicine, v. 6, no. 12, e1000190, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1371/
125. journal.pmed.1000190
126. Meerburg, B. G., Singleton, G. R.; Kijlstra, A. Rodent-borne diseases and their risks for
127. public health. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, v. 35, p. 221-270, 2009. https://doi.org/
128. 1080/10408410902989837
129. NASPHV - National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians. Compendium of
130. animal rabies prevention and control. Little Rock: NASPHV, 2007.
131. Ngoepe, C. E.; Sabeta, C.; Nel, L. The spread of canine rabies into Free State Province of
132. South Africa: A molecular epidemiological characterization. Virus Research, v 142,
133. no. 1/2, p. 175-180, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2009.02.012
134. NPAFS - National Programme for Agriculture and Food Security. Report of the 2009
135. agricultural production survey (APS). Abuja, Nigeria: NPAFS, 2010.
136. Nweze, B. O.; Otuma, M. O.; Ekwu, L. G.; Oga, G. U. E. O. Agropastoral system in humid
137. tropics. A case study of rice muturu integrated farming practice in Ebonyi State.
138. Proceedings of the 8th Annual Conference of Animal Science Association of Nigeria,
139. Maiduguri, Nigeria, p. 139-149, 2003.
140. Ocholi, R. A Brucellosis in Nigeria: A review. Tropical Veterinarian, v. 11, p. 15-26, 1993.
141. Ogunkoya, A. B.; Audu, S. W.; Mshelbwala, P. P.; Atuman, Y. J.; Ehimiyein, A. M.; Osinubi, M.
142. O. V.; Garba, A.; Abidoye, E. O.; Onoja, I. E. Problems of rabies in Nigeria: A review.
143. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Rabies in West Africa (RIWA), Ibadan,
144. Nigeria, 2012.
145. OIE - World Organisation for Animal Health. World animal health information database
146. (WAHIS interface). 2019. Available from: <http://www.oie.int>. Accessed on: Jun. 10,
147. Olival, K. J.; Hosseini, P. R.; Zambrana-Torrelio, C.; Ross, N.; Bogich, T. L.; Daszak, P. Host
148. and viral traits predict zoonotic spillover from mammals. Nature, v. 546, p. 646, 2017.
149. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22975
150. Ovwigho, B. O.; Mmereole, F. U. C.; Udeh, I.; Akporhuarho, P. O. Comparison of constraints
151. to poultry producers in Delta State Nigeria. International Journal of Poultry Science., v.
152. , p. 480-484, 2009. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2009.480.484
153. PCOL - Presidential Committee on Livestock. Reports of the presidential committee on
154. livestock. Abuja, Nigeria: PCOL, 2003.
155. Pedersen, A. B.; Davies, T. J. Cross-species pathogen transmission and disease emergence
156. in Primates. EcoHealth, v. 6, p. 496-508, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-010-
157. -3
158. Plowright, R. K.; Eby, P.; Hudson, P. J.; Smith, P. J.; Westcott, D.; Bryden, W. L.; Middleton, D.;
159. Reid, P. A.; McFarlane, R. A.; Martin, G.; Tabor, G. M.; Skerratt, L. F.; Anderson, D. L.; Crameri,
160. G.; Quammen, D.; Jordan, D.; Freeman, P.; Wang, L.-F.; Epstein, J. H.; Marsh, G. A.; Kung, N. Y.;
161. McCallum, H. Ecological dynamics of emerging bat virus spillover. Proceedings of the
162. Royak Society B, Biological Sciences, v. 282, 2014-2124, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1098/
163. rspb.2014.2124
164. Shirima, G. M.; Fitzpatrick, J.; Cleaveland, S.; Kambarage, D. M.; Kazwala, R.; Kunda, J.;
165. French, N. P. Participatory survey on zoonotic diseases affecting livestock keeping
166. communities in Tanzania. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances, v. 2, p. 253-258,
167. Spickler, A. R. Transmission of zoonoses between animals and people. Kenilworth:
168. Merck, 1955.
169. Ugwu, D. S. The role of small ruminants in the household economy of Southeast zone of
170. Nigeria. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, v. 2, no. 6, p. 726-732, 2007.
171. Wang, L. F.; Crameri, G. Emerging zoonotic viral diseases. Revue Scientifique et
172. Technique, v. 33, no. 2, p. 569-581, 2014. https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.33.2.2311
173. WHO - World Health Organization. Infection control guidelines for transmissible
174. spongiform encephalopathies. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/CDS/CSR/APH, 1999.
175. Wilson, P. Decomposing variation in dairy profitability: The impact of output, inputs,
176. prices, labour and management. The Journal of Agricultural Science, v. 149, p. 507-517,
177. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859610001176
178. Wilson, R. T. The tropical agriculturalists. In: Coste, R.; Smith, A. J. (Eds.). Livestock
179. production systems. London: Macmillan, 1995.